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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY

Oct 23, 2014

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY. WELCOME TO BIOLOGY 2250. Microbes in Our Lives. Microorganisms are organisms that are too small to be seen with the unaided eye. “Germ” refers to a rapidly growing cell. Public Health Applications Food Applications Industrial Applications

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• organic chemicals
• pasteur demonstrated
• spontaneous generation
• produce industrial chemicals
• prevent surgical wound infections

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY • WELCOME TO BIOLOGY 2250

Microbes in Our Lives • Microorganisms are organisms that are too small to be seen with the unaided eye. • “Germ” refers to a rapidly growing cell.

Public Health Applications Food Applications Industrial Applications Biofuels Applications Biopharmaceutical applications WHY STUDY MICROBIOLOGY

Microorganisms • Decompose organic waste • Are producers in the ecosystem by photosynthesis • Produce industrial chemicals such as ethanol and acetone • Produce fermented foods such as vinegar, cheese, and bread

Microorganisms Figure 1.1

Microorganisms • Produce products used in manufacturing (e.g., cellulase) and treatment (e.g., insulin) • A few are pathogenic, disease-causing

Knowledge of Microorganisms • Allows humans to • Prevent food spoilage • Prevent disease occurrence • Led to aseptic techniques to prevent contamination in medicine and in microbiology laboratories.

Naming and Classifying Microorganisms • Linnaeus established the system of scientific nomenclature. • Each organism has two names: the genus and specific epithet.

Scientific Names • Are italicized or underlined. The genus is capitalized and the specific epithet is lower case. • Are “Latinized” and used worldwide. • May be descriptive or honor a scientist.

Scientific Names • Staphylococcus aureus • Describes the clustered arrangement of the cells (staphylo-) and the golden color of the colonies (aur-).

Scientific Names • Escherichia coli • Honors the discoverer, Theodor Escherich, and describes the bacterium’s habitat–the large intestine or colon.

Scientific Names • After the first use, scientific names may be abbreviated with the first letter of the genus and the specific epithet: • Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli are found in the human body. S. aureus is on skin and E. coli in the large intestine.

Bacteria • Prokaryotes • Peptidoglycan cell walls • Binary fission • For energy, use organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, or photosynthesis Figure 1.1a

Archaea • Prokaryotic • Lack peptidoglycan • Live in extreme environments • Include • Methanogens • Extreme halophiles • Extreme thermophiles Figure 4.5b

Fungi • Eukaryotes • Chitin cell walls • Use organic chemicals for energy. • Molds and mushrooms are multicellular consisting of masses of mycelia, which are composed of filaments called hyphae. • Yeasts are unicellular. Figure 1.1b

Protozoa • Eukaryotes • Absorb or ingest organic chemicals • May be motile via pseudopods, cilia, or flagella Figure 1.1c

Algae • Eukaryotes • Cellulose cell walls • Use photosynthesis for energy • Produce molecular oxygen and organic compounds Figure 1.1d

Viruses • Acellular • Consist of DNA or RNA core • Core is surrounded by a protein coat. • Coat may be enclosed in a lipid envelope. • Viruses are replicated only when they are in a living host cell. Figure 1.1e

Multicellular Animal Parasites • Eukaryote • Multicellular animals • Parasitic flatworms and round worms are called helminths. • Microscopic stages in life cycles. Figure 12.28a

Linnaeus’s Classification • Hierarchical system • Binomial Nomenclature Ancient Greeks

Classification of Microorganisms • Three domains • Bacteria • Archaea • Eukarya • Protists • Fungi • Plants • Animals

A Brief History of Microbiology • Ancestors of bacteria were the first life on Earth. • The first microbes were observed in 1673.

The First Observations • In 1665, Robert Hooke reported that living things were composed of little boxes or cells. • In 1858, Rudolf Virchow said cells arise from preexisting cells. • Cell theory: All living things are composed of cells and come from preexisting cells.

Leeuwenhoek • Early Observations

The First Observations • 1673-1723, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek described live microorganisms that he observed in teeth scrapings, rain water, and peppercorn infusions. Figure 1.2b

The Debate Over Spontaneous Generation • The hypothesis that living organisms arise from nonliving matter is called spontaneous generation. According to spontaneous generation, a “vital force” forms life. • The alternative hypothesis, that the living organisms arise from preexisting life, is called biogenesis.

Evidence Pro and Con • 1668: Francisco Redi filled six jars with decaying meat.

Evidence Pro and Con • 1745: John Needham put boiled nutrient broth into covered flasks.

Evidence Pro and Con • 1765: Lazzaro Spallanzani boiled nutrient solutions in flasks.

Evidence Pro and Con • 1861: Louis Pasteur demonstrated that microorganisms are present in the air.

The Theory of Biogenesis • Pasteur’s S-shaped flask kept microbes out but let air in. Figure 1.3

The Golden Age of Microbiology • 1857-1914 • Beginning with Pasteur’s work, discoveries included the relationship between microbes and disease, immunity, and antimicrobial drugs

Fermentation and Pasteurization • Pasteur showed that microbes are responsible for fermentation. • Fermentation is the conversion of sugar to alcohol to make beer and wine. • Microbial growth is also responsible for spoilage of food. • Bacteria that use alcohol and produce acetic acid spoil wine by turning it to vinegar (acetic acid).

Fermentation and Pasteurization • Pasteur demonstrated that these spoilage bacteria could be killed by heat that was not hot enough to evaporate the alcohol in wine. • Pasteruization is the application of a high heat for a short time. Figure 1.4 (1 of 3)

The Germ Theory of Disease • 1835: Agostino Bassi showed that a silkworm disease was caused by a fungus. • 1865: Pasteur believed that another silkworm disease was caused by a protozoan. • 1840s: Ignaz Semmelwise advocated hand washing to prevent transmission of puerperal fever from one OB patient to another.

The Germ Theory of Disease • 1860s: Joseph Lister used a chemical disinfectant to prevent surgical wound infections after looking at Pasteur’s work showing microbes are in the air, can spoil food, and cause animal diseases. • 1876: Robert Koch proved that a bacterium causes anthrax and provided the experimental steps, Koch’s postulates, to prove that a specific microbe causes a specific disease.

Pasteur • Spontaneous generation vs. biogenesis • Germ Theory • Father of aseptic techniques • Pasteurization • Fermentation research • Vaccination (rabies)

Koch • Koch’s Postulates • Pure Culture Concept • Tuberculosis

Magic Bullets • Chemotherapy with chemicals – synthetic drugs and antibiotics • Ehrlich and salversan • Sulfonamides • Fleming and penicillin • Drug resistance issues today

Vaccination • 1796: Edward Jenner inoculated a person with cowpox virus. The person was then protected from smallpox. • Vaccination is derived from vacca for cow. • The protection is called immunity.

The Birth of Modern Chemotherapy • Treatment with chemicals is chemotherapy. • Chemotherapeutic agents used to treat infectious disease can be synthetic drugs or antibiotics. • Antibiotics are chemicals produced by bacteria and fungi that inhibit or kill other microbes. • Quinine from tree bark was long used to treat malaria. • 1910: Paul Ehrlich developed a synthetic arsenic drug, salvarsan, to treat syphilis. • 1930s: Sulfonamides were synthesized.

The Birth of Modern Chemotherapy • 1928: Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic. • He observed that Penicillium fungus made an antibiotic, penicillin, that killed S. aureus. • 1940s: Penicillin was tested clinically and mass produced. Figure 1.5

Modern Developments in Microbiology • Bacteriology is the study of bacteria. • Mycology is the study of fungi. • Parasitology is the study of protozoa and parasitic worms. • Recent advances in genomics, the study of an organism’s genes, have provided new tools for classifying microorganisms.

Modern Developments in Microbiology • Immunology is the study of immunity. Vaccines and interferons are being investigated to prevent and cure viral diseases. • The use of immunology to identify some bacteria according to serotypes (variants within a species) was proposed by Rebecca Lancefield in 1933. Figure 1.4 (3 of 3)

Modern Developments in Microbiology • Virology is the study of viruses. • Recombinant DNA is DNA made from two different sources. In the 1960s, Paul Berg inserted animal DNA into bacterial DNA and the bacteria produced an animal protein. • Recombinant DNA technology, or genetic engineering, involves microbial genetics and molecular biology.

Modern Developments in Microbiology • Using microbes • George Beadle and Edward Tatum showed that genes encode a cell’s enzymes (1942). • Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty showed that DNA was the hereditary material (1944). • Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod discovered the role of mRNA in protein synthesis (1961).

Selected Novel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine * The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. 1901* von Behring Diphtheria antitoxin 1902 Ross Malaria transmission 1905 Koch TB bacterium 1908 Metchnikoff Phagocytes 1945 Fleming, Chain, Florey Penicillin 1952 Waksman Streptomycin 1969 Delbrück, Hershey, Luria Viral replication 1987 Tonegawa Antibody genetics 1997 Prusiner Prions

Linnaeus Jenner Hooke Leeuwenhoek Lister Pasteur Koch Darwin Salk Watson & Crick Jacob and Monod McClintock Woese Venter? A Brief History of Microbiology

Microbes and Human Welfare • Microbial ecology • Bacteria recycle carbon, nutrients, sulfur, and phosphorus that can be used by plants and animals.

Bioremediation • Bacteria degrade organic matter in sewage. • Bacteria degrade or detoxify pollutants such as oil and mercury. UN 2.1

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